HR Competencies Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

HR Competencies - Assignment Example Secondly, the competence of data interpretation skills helps to take the assessment process to a step further as it ensures that the HR professional makes decisions based on the assessment outcomes (Becker, Huselid & Ulrich, 2001). Based on the discussion above, there are several values that the competencies can be said to bring to the organization. Most importantly, the competences help in making the idea of strategic partnership feasible. Meanwhile, when the HR professional becomes a strategic partner, it can be expected that the organization’s strategy will be applied in a more efficient manner to make the achievement of the HR goals easier. Again, as part of the strategic partnership that will be created, the concepts of shared responsibility and cross-functional teams are expected to be formed. Meanwhile when these concepts are made practical in the organization, they ensure that all parties and entities within different departments of the organization are aided in the performance of their roles so that there can be a form of effectiveness that betters the value created within the organization. For future purposes, it is expected that the competence of intrinsic motivation will be developed. This c ompetence will help employees fuel their personal commitment towards organization growth in general and strategic partnership in

Cultural Tourism Essay Example for Free

Cultural Tourism Essay Tourism is one of the largest industries in the world today that consists of eco-tourism, beach tourism, cruises, cultural tourism and business tourism. This essay will mainly discuss the authenticity of cultural tourism. Meethan suggested in 2001 that modern cultures and societies are just as authentic as those that are present since decades and even centuries. Meethan here is correct, because the tourists really seek a dispersed experience in cultures both modern and old. However, many people think that only the traditional cultures and original artefacts come under the definition of authentic cultural tourism. Even the tourists have a different insight of what constitutes the authenticity in cultural tourism. This essay will talk about these issues and their implications for cultural tourism. Cultural tourism, according to World Tourism Organization (WTO), is the visit of the interested tourists to culturally rich destinations and their visit consists of a range of activities such as visits to heritage buildings and sites, attending performances of the local artists, taking part in traditional festivities and pilgrimage of holy places. Many do not agree with this narrow definition by WTO as the cultural tourism is synonymised with the civilizations and the way of living of the historic societies in that tourist destination. The local residents are mostly ignored from the definition and also from the concept of cultural tourism. However, the truth is that the locals make up for the major part of the experience of tourists. Their way of living and the current culture of the residents if often revitalized for enhancing the experience of the tourists. This forced influence on the local cultures for attracting more tourists is hurting the authenticity of the cultures in tourist destinations (Clarke 2003). Although it is true that tourists seek a combination of modern and traditional cultures on their destinations, but they prefer to consume traditional and modern tourism separately. Some of the tourists just fly from East to West for sinking into the beauty of traditional culture. These tourists want to enjoy the tradition by visiting cultural heritage buildings, attending traditional theatres and listening to the cultural songs of the destination. However, some cultural entrepreneurs try to blend the modern aspects with the traditional culture for the promotion of the destinations. There is a triangle of the cultural entrepreneurs, the tourists and the residents of the destination. The culture of the destination is defined by the way of living of the residents and the activities of the entrepreneurs. For the purpose of expanding the business, attracting more tourists and enhancing their sales, the local hosts and cultural entrepreneurs force the residents to change their way of living and link it to the culture. This is done in order to present the tourists with a cultural experience. Hungary has been known for the production wine and the tradition of small wine shops with their own vineyards. These shops and the people involved in the production of wine were of a particular attraction to the tourists as they saw this tradition of wine production as a rich culture. As tourism thrived, there were attempts to increase the production of wines through both, the government authorities and through the cultural entrepreneurs. However, this mass production of wine was not as successful as the wine from small wineries. This is the threat to the authenticity of the culture and the tourists proved that they did not like this blend of modern and traditional culture in Hungary. They proved that they preferred the traditional culture over the modern culture as the mass production of Hungarian wine was not successful. The tourists came to this Hungarian destination for the experience of the traditional small wineries and not for the wine. The tourists also did not get any special treatment by the independent wine producers in Hungary because they considered the tourists as a source of sales. The tourists were not treated any differently from other customers and they were given the sale offer; taste it and purchase it if you like it. This was because the only interest for the wine producers was the revenue from the sale of the wines and nothing more. In this case, the original culture was not touched by the cultural entrepreneurs, and minimal accommodation was made for the tourists such as the use of local wood for furniture. This resulted in the reduction of wine tourism in this area as there was no cultural entrepreneurship. There was nothing more in the offer except the wine, but afterwards some food dishes were also added to the menu but the tourism still was low because of the more complex wine tourism efforts by the other countries. The other countries excelling in wine production attracted more tourists than Hungary because they were able to blend the modern and traditional culture. Another case that supports the view of Meethan is the case of â€Å"Valley of the Arts† which attracted millions of customers each year at the arts festival that was organized by Istvan Marta. The organizers gave a deep thought on the cultural perspectives of the valley and they came to the conclusion that different tourists have different needs. The high spenders would require different type of product than attending just a simple art festival. The venues were made better and redesigned and the marketing efforts were doubled. The organizers attracted sponsorships and media coverage and hence added to the appeal. The locals were also involved and were allowed to attend the shows and these events were transformed into a very fashionable one. Soon the streets became crowded with high end cars owned by the German tourists. Hence, from these two case studies, the lessons learnt are that an entrepreneurial spirit is necessary for the promotion of the cultural tourism focusing on the core of the activity. Hence, modern and traditional cultures need to go hand in hand for the attraction of the international tourists. The commercial intent is necessary but the tradition should be kept alive which is the driving force for the tourists. The tourists should be given added facilities to augment the sales and attract the high spenders and luxury seekers. While Alan Clarke was working in the rural areas of Hungary, the local tradition was kept alive but still the communication technologies had a lot of penetration. The list of available international channels was far more than the number available in United Kingdom. The rural areas had access to Hungarian, Italian, Spanish, French, German, American and Russian channels (Clarke 2003). Jaipur, a culturally rich city of India, is particularly selected as a destination by tourists because of its historical attractions including the handicrafts and the heritage. Jaipur inhibits some of the forts built by the Moguls, centuries old paintings, the preserved sculptures and the traditional excellence in architecture that is preserved in buildings such as mosques. The tourists are also keen to visit Jaipur because of the folklore dances and Sufi music that was inspired by pundits and saints centuries ago. However, the city is continuously gearing up and adding more hotels and hi-tech facilities for the tourists. The core product of tourism in this city is the same for all tourists, but different income level groups can enjoy different class of tourism in this city (Kala 2008). High spenders can opt to spend their evenings in luxury spas while the people belonging to lower income group can live in small hotels and save money to spend on the purchase of handicraft and sculptures. According to a survey on the local residents, around 85% of the residents of Jaipur think that there was an evidence of development of city because of tourism and more entertainment facilities such as pubs, bars, hotels, swimming pools and parks were being developed. In the city, the local small scale industries were also being promoted by the government as the handicraft items were in demand by the foreign tourists. New hotels were also being built for accommodating the increasing number of tourists over time. This has induced employment and created new job opportunities for the local residents. Around 81% of the respondents in Jaipur thought that employment was being generated in the city because of the increasing tourism. Hotels and restaurants are labour intensive and hence they require the locals to work in their facilities. This generates more jobs for the local residents. Increasing tourism had positive impacts on the economy, but the locals have to face the problems such as increased traffic jams in the city and change in the culture. The way of living of the locals change as the standard of living gets better. Once the international tourists start coming in, and development start, then the primary culture is forgotten. 71% of the respondents of a survey in Jaipur commented that the increase in tourism has affected their traditional culture (Kala 2008). This change in traditional culture and way of living could harm the cultural tourism industry in the long term because the tourists will not be attracted to the city once the way of living of the locals is changed. The tourist-host interaction is very important in cultural tourism because it is an integral part of cultural tourism. The cultural tourists expect a spontaneous interaction with the locals and their traditional hospitality. However, if these important elements are vanished from the Jaipur culture, then the cultural tourists will no longer be attracted to the city. From the case studies presented, it is proved that only those tourist destinations have been successful which integrated modern and traditional culture. Authenticity of the culture is affected by designing attractions for the tourists but this depends upon the definition of cultural tourism. The modern tourist, however, can no longer enjoy cultural tourism that is untouched by modernity. There are also some issues when there is a blend of the two types of cultures. If these issues are managed properly, cultural tourism can be of great help to the economy of the destination and it can be responsible for raising the standard of living of the locals too. WORKS CITED Clarke, A. The Cultural Tourism Dynamic. Conference on Developing Cultural Tourism. UK: University of Nottingham, 2003. Kala, N. Host Perception of Heritage Tourism Impact with Special Refernce to the City of Jaipur. entrepreneurs 1, no. 1 (2008): 65-76.

Biological Importance Of Water And Lipids

Biological Importance Of Water And Lipids Water is arguably the most essential building block of life; it is the most abundant molecule in cells, whole organisms, and on Earth. Every single organism contains water, typically forming 70 95% of the mass of a cell; a typical human being is compromised of 60% water. Without water, life cannot exist. Water also provides an environment for the organisms that need it to live, as three quarters of the Earth are covered in water. Water is an excellent solvent in general, including polar molecules (eg. glycerol and sugars) and ions. This is because the water molecules are attracted to, collect around, and separate/dissociate the atoms from each other (as the forces of attraction between the negatively charged part of the water molecule and positively charged sodium cation is greater than the forces of attraction between the sodium and chloride ions). Once a chemical is free in its solution, it is then free to roam about and react with other chemicals most processes in organisms are done via this way in solution. In stark contrast, non-polar molecules such as lipids are insoluble in water; when surrounded by water, they tend to be pushed together, as the water molecules become attracted to each other. This is extremely important in reactions such as hydrophobic interactions in protein structure (reactions where atoms dissociate from each other) and in membrane structure, as it increases the stability of these structures. Some molecules have strong intramolecular forces, and do not dissociate in water; however, some do have charged regions on their surface, which result in attracting a layer of water around the molecules. These regions attract water molecules, which are surrounding and are weakly bound to the molecule and cannot move away from its surface this is known as a colloidal suspension. This helps create a concentration gradient for the process of osmosis, as it would for example, assist in drawing water into the blood vessels. Because water is such an effective solvent, it can transport essential substances necessary for the functioning of cells/whole organisms eg. glucose, amino acids, fats, vitamins, respiratory gases etc. Similarly, metabolic reactions (catalysed by enzymes) occur in solution. So, the charged nature of a water molecule means it can act as a solvent, an essential property to living organisms. Water is the transport medium in the blood, in the lymphatic, excretory and digestive systems of animals, and in the vascular tissues of plants. When minerals are absorbed by plants from the soil across root hairs, the minerals are in an aqueous solution of water. The water based movement of sugars, amino acids and hormones (eg. in phloem) and transpiration stream are also in solution. All the transport fluids used in animals like cytoplasm, blood, plasma and tissue fluid are water based. Essential metabolites dissolve completely in water, like glucose, amino acids, minerals and vitamins. Larger molecules like proteins are transported as colloids (molecules which are weakly bound to water molecules). Water being essential to the transportation of necessary substances correlates strongly to water being an excellent solvent, as it is mostly through solution that these substances can get to where they are required. However, water does have other properties which make it suitable for tra nsportation; the low viscosity of water also enables it to flow easily through tubes eg. xylem vessels. Water is a polar molecule, in which it has both positively and negatively charged areas; water consists of two positively charged hydrogen atoms and one negatively charged oxygen atom. As a result of this polarity, opposite (one positive hydrogen atom, one negative oxygen atom) water molecules are attracted to each other and a hydrogen bond is formed. The individual hydrogen bonds are weak, but collectively they make water a very stable medium eg. it remains a liquid over a wide range of temperatures. This property is vital to sustain life in all living organisms. Water is effective as a temperature regulator; its high specific heat capacity (it takes 4.2 Joules of energy to raise one gram of water by 1Â °C it takes a lot of heat energy to significantly raise the temperature of water) allows it to act as a buffer, a necessity in endothermic organisms that need to maintain a constant body temperature in order to fulfil its enzyme potential, and therefore regulate metabolism. The high amount of hydrogen bonds in water also makes it difficult for water molecules to evaporate; when they eventually do, a high amount of energy is released, which in turn acts as a cooling mechanism; this is crucial to life, as internal body temperature needs to be maintained at a constant temperature, any fluctuations can result in a breakdown of essential processes. It must be reinforced that water is a polar molecule, which means it remains a liquid over a wide temperature range, which is good for metabolism and to ensure that aquatic animals in the ocean do not freeze. Water actually has a high, latent heat of fusion from solid to liquid; it requires 300 Joules per gram of ice to melt water, which means that water stays liquid. This is vital for cell cytoplasm, which is made of a high percentage of water: once frozen, a cell would be damaged beyond repair. The freezing point of water is also lowered by solutes, as the soluble molecules disrupt the hydrogen bonds, making the water freeze at a lower temperature and easier to melt into ice. There are many solutes in cytoplasm, ensuring the water will not freeze until well below 0Â °C, protecting the cells. As water cools, its density increases, and the hydrogen bonds between the water molecules take on a more latticed formation (as ice). However, ice floats on the surface of water: this must mean that it must have a lower density than water. Water is at its most dense at 4Â °C; this is because it is at this temperature that the bonds are closest together. When water freezes, the lattice arr angement of its structure loosens slightly, and it will float on the surface. Thereby, the layer of ice would insulate the water below, maintaining its temperature of 4Â °C and aquatic life can continue. Water is useful in sexual reproduction, and is used by animals that use this to create offspring. Water brings male and female gametes together in the process of fertilisation, and in mammals, the foetus develops in a water filled amniotic sac, which provides both physical and thermal stability. Bryophytes (scientific terms for land plants) release antherozoids (male gametes in plants) in moist conditions, which then use flagella to swim to oospheres by chemotaxis; chemotaxis is the phenomenon in which bodily cells, bacteria, and other single-cell/multi-cellular organism can direct their movements according to certain chemicals in their environment. Lipids constitute an essential component of a cell, and has tremendous biological importance. Triglycerides are a major group of lipids formed by the combination of three fatty acid molecules with one glycerol molecule and are the main source of energy in animals. One gram of lipid on oxidation release 9.3 kilocalories of heat however, the same amount of carbohydrate only release 4.5 kilocalories in comparison. These are found in adipose tissue (occupying around 90% of the cell volume), which consists of fat cells designed for constant synthesis and decomposition of triglycerides by the enzyme lipase to produce high-caloric energy. A lot of migratory birds depend on their stored energy to fuel their long distance flights. ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) can be produced when fatty acids are oxidised. Triglycerides can be easily stored as they are insoluble in water, meaning they will not dissolve in anything but chloroform, ethanol and ether. This is due to the long hydrocarbon tails of the fatty acids (consists of a chain of carbon atoms combined with hydrogen). Unlike polar water molecules, the fatty acid tails have no uneven distribution of electrical charge therefore, triglycerides will not mix freely with water molecules. An animal cell membrane is a flexible lipid bilayer. The lipid molecules (mostly phospholipids) that make up the membrane have a polar, hydrophilic head and two hydrophobic hydrocarbon tails. When the lipids are immersed in an aqueous solution, the lipids rapidly bury the tails together, and leave the hydrophilic heads exposed. This is therefore a very useful membrane, as it can easily automatically repair itself if torn. There are three different major types of lipid molecules: phospholipids, cholesterol, and glycolipids. Different membranes have different ratios of the three lipids. A special feature about these lipid membranes is the presence of different proteins on the surface, used for different functions such as cell surface receptors, enzymes, surface antigens, and transporters. Many of the membrane-associated proteins have hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions. The hydrophilic regions are used to help anchor the protein inside of the cell membrane; some proteins extend across the lipid bilayer, others cross the bilayer several times. Lipids are an excellent energy reserve, as they are very rich in carbon-hydrogen bonds, even more so than in carbohydrates. A given mass of lipid would thereby yield more energy on oxidation than the same mass of carbohydrate (it has a higher calorific value). Fat is stored in a number of places in the human body, especially just below the dermis of the skin and around the kidneys. Below the skin, it acts as an insulator against the loss of heat. Blubber is an example of a lipid found in sea mammals (eg. whales), which functions in both providing insulation and buoyancy. The myelin sheath is a dielectric material that is made up of approximately 80% lipid and 20% protein, and forms an insulating layer around the axon, as well as increasing the speed of impulses, due to there being gaps in the myelin sheath (nodes of Ranvier). Fat serves as a protective cushion and provides structural support to help prevent injury to vital organs, such as the heart, liver, kidneys, and spleen. In the lungs, surfactants are an example of a lipid barrier. Surfactants reduce tension, as without it, the wet surfaces of the alveoli in our lungs would stick together, and the lungs would not be able to expand, thus rendering breathing impossible. Fat insulates the body from heat loss and extreme temperature changes; simultaneously, fat deposits under the skin may be metabolized to generate heat in response to lower skin temperatures. Lipids can also act as a metabolic source of water; when oxidised in respiration they are converted to carbon dioxide and water the water could be important in dry habitats eg. the desert kangaroo rat never drinks water, instead surviving on its metabolic water from its fat intake. Sources: Water = http://www.williamhoward.cumbria.sch.uk/intranet/Science/KS5/Abiology/Factsheets/factsheets1-72/Bio%20Press%20Factsheets/30%20water%20page%201.pdf, Biology 1 textbook

Jane Eyre :: Essays Papers

Jane Eyre A. Setting: England, Early 1800s B. Point of View: First person C. Jane Eyre, the main character, is sent out of the drawing room by her Aunt, Mrs. Reed (Jane’s parents had died while she was very young and her Uncle took her in. After he died Mrs. Reed kept Jane although she despised her.). Jane then retires to the library, where she hid by the window-sill, behind the curtain. A few minutes later her cousins John, Eliza, and Geneva come in. While Eliza and Geneva watch, John orders Jane to show herself. As she does, he taunts and insults her before taking the book away saying that since his father died everything in the house belonged to him. John threw the book at her causing her to fall back striking her head. When Jane tried to defend herself, John was hurt and called for his mother and the servants. Jane was locked in the room in which her Uncle died, for the whole night, as punishment for misbehavior. D. Jane is a girl who is used to unjust treatment. Most of her life she had to live in a house with no one who cared for her and no one she cared about. When she leaves Lowood ( the school she attended as a child and teenager ), I believe she is looking for happiness. Jane is extremely independent, for instance when she walked all the way to town to mail her letter. She is also very cynical like when Mr. Rochester asks if she expects a present from him and she replies that she has done nothing to deserve a present. Mr. Rochester is the other main character of this story. He also is wanting happiness, but mostly he just wants peace. He is brash and blunt, not really caring about people’s feelings. E. After Jane attends school at Lowood 6 years then teaches 2 additional years she becomes tired of it and places an ad for a governess position in the local newspaper. The ad is answered and Jane packs her things and heads off. Jane doesn’t meet the man she works for until one night when she is taking a letter into town to mail. Mr. Rochester’s horse gets spooked and they take a fall on the ice. Mr. Rochester sprained his ankle but his horse is fine. when he is talking to Jane he learns that she is the new governess at

Csr Issue of Burger King Essay

Burger King Worldwide is a Delaware corporation that franchises and operates fast food hamburger restaurants, principally under the Burger King ® brand (also referred to as the â€Å"Brand†). Since the company’s founding as a single restaurant in Miami, Florida in 1954, we have grown to become the world ´s second largest fast food hamburger restaurant, or FFHR, chain as measured by the total number of restaurants. The board of BK sets the â€Å"tone at the top† by promoting an ethical culture that respects and values all employees and stakeholders and encourages compliance with all laws and company policies. Their vision is to be the most profitable QSR business, through a strong franchise system and great people, serving the best burgers in the world. Along with the vision, BK have a strong set of values that are the foundation of how they work day-to-day and help shape the company’s future. Burger King operated in business that is by the natural socially and environmentally sensitive. For instance, Food safety at BURGER KING ® restaurants is non-negotiable; The BURGER KING McLAMORESM Foundation has granted more than $17.6 million to students in the U.S., Canada and Puerto Rico since founding the BURGER KING Scholarsâ„ ¢ program in 2000; BURGER KING ® restaurants received PETA’S â€Å"Most Improved National Food Chain† award in their fifth annual Proggy Awards, which recognize companies for their progress; The A+ rating by The Better Business Bureau is Based on our performance related to ethical business practices. But inevitably, Burger King has gone through various legal issues, especially with certain pressure groups. Some of the disputes that occurred to Burger King, e.g. A trademark dispute involving the owners of the identically named Burger King in Mattoon, Illinois, led to a federal lawsuit; Controversies and disputes have arisen with groups such as People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA), governmental and social agencies, and unions and trade groups over various topics; Further controversies have occurred during the company’s expansion in the Middle East. Disputes involving these many legal topics have affected almost every aspect of the company’s operations. The ethical policies and corporate  responsibilities practiced by Burger King that appeal to various stakeholders. Depending on the ownership and executive staff at the time of these incidents, the company’s responses to these challenges have ranged from a conciliatory dialog with its critics and litigants, to a more aggressive opposition with questionable tactics and negative consequences. The company’s response to these various issues has drawn praise as well as accusations of political appeasement from different parties over the years. It can be clearly seen the efforts the Burger King has put into fulfilling their responsibilities towards their respective stakeholders. In regard to initiatives, we found that the Burger king’s CSR is focused on 4 key areas: 1. Commitment to Food * BK provides detailed nutrition information to the guests so they can make informed choices. * BK’s HAVE IT YOUR WAY ® brand promise lets the consumers customize their menu choices to meet their individual diets and lifestyles. * Nutrition, quality, value and taste are all important attributes that can help the guests and their children make choices that promote healthy living. 2. Commitment to People BK continues to distinguish themselves from their competitors by being an exceptional employer. One of the ways that they accomplish this goal is by creating a culture that is Bold, Accountable, Empowered and Fun. 3. Commitment to the Environment * BK is continually researching and developing ways to make changes that will be positive on the environment without compromising operational standards. * BURGER KING ® Green Sessions * Reduce, reuse and recycle. * Purchase beef that has been raised in environmentally responsible ways. 4. Commitment to Corporate Governance * The core ethical and governance principles of BKC begin at the top. * As a condition of doing business within the BURGER KING ® system, every approved vendor must comply with the Code of Business Ethics and Conduct for Vendors. * They partnered with, and received recognition from, a variety of organizations that share our dedication to being a good corporate citizen  and improving our communities around the world. In conclusion, Burger King should focus on these initiatives that can create a long-term sustainable competitive advantage. For the problems and issues, no matter that organisation arises, but it is how an organisation deal with it makes it a successful one. References Retrieved from investor.bk.com/conteudo_en.asp?idioma=1&conta=44&tipo=43565 Retrieved from investor.bk.com/conteudo_en.asp?idioma=1&conta=44&tipo=43566 â€Å"Burger King Brands, Inc.†. Bloomberg Businessweek. Retrieved January 18, 2011. Burger King – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. (n.d.). Retrieved September 8, 2013, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burger_King Jermaine, John (November 20, 2003). â€Å"The burger king and queen of Mattoon†. The Illinois Times. Retrieved September 26, 2007. â€Å"Burger King responds to trans-fat cooking oil suit†. CTV. Associated Press. May 17, 2007. Retrieved September 28, 2007. Martin, Andrew (May 24, 2008). â€Å"Burger King Grants Raise to Pickers†. The New York Times. Retrieved May 25, 2008. Scheck v. Burger King, 756 F. Supp 543 (11th Cir. 1991) Corporate Responsibility | Company Information | BURGER KING ®. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.bk.com/en/us/company-info/corporate-responsibility/index.html [ 1 ]. Retrieved from investor.bk.com/conteudo_en.asp?idioma=1&conta=44&tipo=43565 [ 2 ]. Burger King – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. (n.d.). Retrieved September 8, 2013, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burger_King [ 3 ]. Corporate Responsibility | Company Information | BURGER KING ®. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.bk.com/en/us/company-info/corporate-responsibility/index.html

Essay Sample on Romanticism and Enlightenment Values

Essay Sample on Romanticism and Enlightenment Values Romanticism is not the bastard child of the Enlightenment but its mistress. Discuss with reference to ideas about savage peoples. In this essay on Romanticism I intend to review some of the key ideas from political and economic philosophy and the general themes that characterised the thinking of the two movements. I hope to trace the course of the perception of the ‘other’ from that of the semi-mythical through to the nascent reject of ethnocentricity. I will be focusing particularly on conceptions of the ‘state of nature’ and the development of the comparative methodology. Finally, I intend to argue that the separation of Enlightenment thought from romantic thought is to some extent a false division in the field of political philosophy. The British Enlightenment movement, (the 17th 18th Centuries), was deeply embedded in the political and economic upheavals of the time. The trial and execution of Charles I was an open challenge to the orthodoxy of the divine right of Kings to rule and much of the later political philosophy was to address the form and nature of government. Science and industrialisation were continuing apace, and by the early 1700s Britain would see the first Industrial Revolution. The old feudal order was rapidly giving way to a new capitalist one. While contributors to the body of work produced during the Enlightenment took quite different philosophical positions, it could be said that at the heart of the Enlightenment movement was â€Å"a confidence in science, a daring attempt at new discoveries about the human mind, an opposition to superstition and fanaticism, an emphasis on human nature, a restrained scepticism about traditional views of knowledge and belief, and a mood of reform and critique .† (Hume, 1999, [1748], 10) A few years after the execution of Charles I, Hobbes was to publish Leviathan (1651), his seminal work in which he laid out his blueprint for civil peace. In Leviathan Hobbes examines the foundations and nature of civil society and envisions man emerging from a ‘state of nature’, (the hypothetical condition existing â€Å"if there were no common power able to restrain individuals, no law and no law-enforcement†. (Hobbes, 1968, [1651], 40)). Essentially, Hobbes believed certain aspects of human life would always bring man into conflict with each other, constantly balancing a desire for power with an aversion to death or injury. He thought that men would reason that the best method of self-preservation was peace and that men should be willing to forgo their â€Å"right to all things† on the provision that everyone else does simultaneously. This system is precarious though as men will always seek to recover his devolved powers and use them to his own advantage and to prevent this, these powers must be surrendered to a sovereign. This entire system is predicated on reason and thus the innate ability of man to determine the ‘laws of nature’: â€Å"A LAW OF NATURE (Lex Naturalis,) is a Precept, or general Rule, found out by Reason, by which a man is forbidden to do† (Hobbes, 1968, [1651], 189). Locke published his ‘Two Treatises of Government’ a few years later and the subject matter has much in common with that of Leviathan. Like Hobbes, Locke believed that â€Å"The State of Nature has a Law of Nature to govern it, which obliges everyone† (Locke, 1960, 271). Elsewhere, Locke clarifies his use of ‘reason’: â€Å"Reason therefore here, as contradistinguished to Faith, I take to be the discovery of the Certainty or Probability of such Propositions or Truths, which the Mind arrives at by Deductions made from such Ideas, which it has got by the use of its natural Faculties, viz. by Sensation or Reflection.† (Locke, 1960, 390) However, Locke’s conception of man in the state of nature is markedly more optimistic than that of Hobbes, political society is not responsible for all that is admirable in man, â€Å"for truth and keeping of Faith belongs to Men, as Men, and not as Members of society† (1960, 277) and neither is the state of nature the chaotic, hypothetic state of nature of Hobbes, but instead that situation where one â€Å"Body Politick† has been formed (1960, 277) Hume is often considered a archetypal Enlightenment thinker, however, he struck an enormous blow against the prevailing rationalism, so prevalent in the thought and writing of Hobbes and Locke, â€Å"Many of these philosophers thought that, using reason alone, they could establish the existence and nature of God, identify the most basic entities that comprise the universe, and grasp the eternal truths of morality† (Hume, 1999, [1748], 11). Hume’s argument is strongly empirical, he claims that most knowledge, knowledge of ‘matters of fact’ as opposed to a priori truths such as those of mathematics, comes from our experience and that it is only through our past experience that we believe it to be ‘true’ knowledge. Furthermore, just because we perceive a cause and effect based on our past experience there is nothing that compels this necessary connection in the future (Hume, 1999, [1748], 109). While a fuller exposition of Hume’s writings i s beyond the scope of this essay it is important to note that Locke’s understanding of reason, that which underpinned his entire philosophy, is comprised of intuitive, demonstrative and sensitive forms of knowledge. Thus the exclusive use of reason as a methodology for understanding the world and its laws was effectively challenged by reason. The formative role of past experience and local phenomena was to characterize much of the political and economic philosophy thenceforth, and although much of this thinking was concurrent with Hume’s work, his influence was especially felt on his friend Adam Smith. Specifically, thinkers were both encouraged further in the scientific method, induction rather than deduction. The search for the fundamental laws governing the universe and human behavior continued but empirical and comparative approaches prospered. ‘The Wealth of Nations’ both examines the inter-connectedness and causes of economic phenomena and provides a form of economic manifesto. Smith took a relativist approach to his work, â€Å"he recognized that in aesthetics, as well as in everything else, standards were variable and there was nothing that was ultimately ‘right’.† (MacFarlane, 2000, 84). Smith saw societies as moving though distinct economic phases influenced by their level of resources, government and whether or not they are at war. Like Locke, he saw the preservation of property as a formative factor in civil society, but unlike Locke this was no social contract but, â€Å"Civil government, so far as it is instituted for the security of property, is, in reality, instituted for the defense of the rich against the poor, or of those who have some property against those who have none at all.† (1970 [1776], 610) This kind of environmental determinism is also found in Montesquieu’s writings, he writes extensively on the effect of climate on the character. While his position was certainly not relativist (â€Å"barbaric customs and penitences† (1989, 235)) he strongly embraced the comparative method and prefigured functionalist thought, such as that of Malinowski, by arguing that religious and social phenomena were in part a product of their environment. Rousseau published the ‘social contract’ in 1762, returning to many of themes discussed by Hobbes and Locke a hundred years earlier but from a romantic perspective. By contrast, Rousseau looks not to the civilizing power of pure reason but to emotive forces that can be inculcated into men â€Å"form men if you want to command men.† (1997, 13). Political society is no longer a logical extension of natural law, but â€Å"the social order is a sacred right†¦yet this right does not come from nature; it is therefore founded on conventions† (1997, 41) the social contract ‘substitutes’ â€Å"a partial and moral existence for the independent and physical existence we have all received from nature.† (1997, 69). As Montesquieu had done before him, and Smith would do after, Rousseau believed that environment had an effect on the laws and custom of societies (1997, 74) but Rousseau is possessed of a more relativistic, if not idealistic, perspec tive, â€Å"When, among the happiest people in the world, troops of peasants are seen attending to affairs of State under an oak tree and always acting wisely, can one avoid despising the refinements of other nations which make themselves illustrious and miserable with so much art and mystification?† (1997, 121) The French Revolution, and the shock waves it sent throughout Europe, was considered by some to be the natural result of applied Enlightenment principles. In particular Burke struck out at the â€Å"Empire of light and reason† (1968, [1790], 171), he wrote: â€Å"the pretended rights of these theorists are all extremes; and in proportion as they are metaphysically true, they are morally and politically false.† (1968, [1790], 153) Burke makes an impassioned defense of the merits of tradition and emotive values, â€Å"all your sophisters cannot produce any thing better adapted to preserve a rational and manly freedom than the course that we have pursued, who have chosen our nature rather than our speculations, our breasts rather than our inventions, for the great conservatories and magazines or our rights and privileges.† (1968, [1790], 121). This appeal to the values of emotion and a rejection of the primacy of rationality is characteristic of Romanticism which is echoed throughout the literature and music of the period. However, to view it independently or entirely in opposition to the Enlightenment is fallacious, it is very much a continuation and expansion of some of the key ideas: â€Å"This can be seen with particular clarity in the fundamental schema of the philosophy of history that romanticism shares with the Enlightenment and that precisely though the romantic reaction to the Enlightenment became an unshakable premise: the schema of the conquest of mythos by logos†¦It is supposed to represent progress in the history of the mind, and precisely because romanticism disparages this development, it take over the schema itself as a self-evident truth.† (Gadamer, 1999, 273) As a final point, and to return to the assertion of the essay title, in could be argued that in some ways the analogy of the Romantic Movement to that which is female is particularly appropriate given later structuralist thought. While rationality, science and individuality are associated with the masculine (â€Å"I flatter myself that I love a manly, moral, regulated liberty as well as any gentlemen of that society† (Burke, 1968, [1790], 89), nature, superstition, emotion, the body and the organic conception of social systems are often conflated in western society with the feminine.